Bird Health - Gouldians & other Finches

Introduction
Gouldian finches are well established in captivity but further knowledge is needed to help keep captive collections prolific. Every effort must be made to protect their habitat and fund further scientific research into the behaviour of the Gouldian Finch in the wild.

Many different colour combinations – called Colour Mutations - have developed from the original Normal coloured Gouldian. Through selective breeding captive Normals and many of the established Mutations are larger in size but as strong and vital as the wild Gouldian Finch. Normal Gouldian finches are similar in colour to the wild form and the strongest type of Gouldian kept in captivity.

They may have black, red or yellow coloured heads. These birds thrive in open-type aviaries when bred as a colony with their own kind. Here they are allowed to choose their own mates and develop into the strong highly productive families sought as foster parents to rear the coloured mutation Gouldian. Good breeding results may also be achieved when smaller cages holding individual pairs are used as housing or for breeding purposes.

Moult in Captivity
The moult (regrowth of new feathers) places an enormous drain on the birds' metabolic resources. A diet rich in energy and protein should be supplied daily to the birds until the moult is complete. At this time their resistance to disease is very low and everything possible must be done to reduce stress and overcrowding. Some juvenile losses can be expected during the moult.

Hygiene is especially important during the moult. Food and water containers should be clean at all times and situated away from perches.

Juveniles start their moult in spring (August/September in Southern Hemisphere and February/March in Northern Hemisphere), which is normally completed within 6-8 weeks.

Juvenile plumage is replaced in a progressive manner gradually revealing the adult colours. The feathers of the abdomen are the first to be replaced followed by those in the rump area. The breast patch begins to moult at about the same time as the head. The head and back feathers and end flights are the last to be renewed. Birds bred late in the season will not always moult completely and they get 'stuck-in-the-moult' for the remainder of the year, however, these birds will moult successfully the following season. A health set back due to stress, disease, overcrowding or lack of hygiene may also cause a bird to get 'stuck-in-the moult' Link to Delayed Moult .

Gouldians have a particularly heavy moult compared to finches from the same area (Masked and Long-tails). There is a delay in the moult in drier areas. (Tidemann: Emu.94(1).1994)

The moult pattern of old birds and especially late-bred juveniles in captivity can be used to calculate the most appropriate and productive time to breed for any particular geographic and climatic location.

Adult birds should replace their feathers once a year during spring. Untidy adult plumage may occur when Gouldians breed during spring (a time when they should be allowed to moult) or when aviary conditions or illness prevent them from completing the spring moult.

Youngsters bred at the correct time of the year complete their juvenile moult at the same time as the adult birds. Ragged juvenile plumage is a feature common to "late-breds". "Late-breds" are young that fledge between August and December, a time when their parents should moult rather than breed. By missing the annual spring moult pattern these "late breds" carry the dull coloured plumage of immature Gouldians until the following spring moult. They may retain the immature plumage for up to fourteen months, depending upon the time that they are bred.

Weak "late-breds" are particularly susceptible to illness and death during fluctuating cold temperatures of winter. The strong "late-breds" develop normally and may even breed with immature plumage. Even so, these stronger birds are susceptible to breeding failure and disease because it requires a great deal more effort to brood eggs and young with poorly insulated juvenile plumage. "Early-breds" (first round young) who fledge in late summer (February in Southern Hemisphere or August in Northern Hemisphere) may partially moult and acquire an incomplete adult plumage by the time the spring moult begins.

Youngsters bred in summer/autumn (between March &.August in the Southern Hemisphere; September until Febuary in the Northern Hemisphere) retain their juvenile plumage until spring, after which time they will moult into adult plumage and join the same cycle as fully matured birds. In Australia birds fledged as late as July and early August should moult during spring (unless they are weak or unhealthy) and attain their adult plumage by the first month of summer (December in Australia).

Understanding the relationship between the juvenile and spring moult pattern should help the enthusiast determine the most appropriate time to start breeding Gouldians, especially the fragile coloured mutations.

The appearance of a few feathers on the aviary floor in September marks the beginning of the spring moult and the presence of new back feathers and pin-feathers on the head heralds the imminent closure of the moult and about a month before the birds start coming into breeding condition. The healthiest individuals may come into breeding condition shortly after the closure of the moult.

In order to achieve the best breeding results and to relieve breeding problems, breeders of Gouldians should assign the three months of spring to the moult. The exact starting time for the moult may vary slightly from one region and aviary type to the next.

The appearance of feathers in ornamental and half open box-type aviaries holding non-breeding mature birds around spring time signals the time to remove breeding boxes, curtail breeding activity and prepare for the moult. Gouldians who are allowed to breed at this time may neglect or reject their young and are more likely to suffer illness, as they will attempt to moult whilst they breed. Their moult will be slow and often incomplete, disturbing their natural moult and breeding cycles.

Gouldian Behaviour in Captivity
There is so much for us to learn about the Gouldian and what is needed to make them happy and productive in captivity.

This section explains the importance of Gouldian happiness, warmth, direct sunlight, nest making and good health to breeding success.

Gouldians are shy within their natural habitat and are the last finches to come to water in the morning and evening. In line with this retiring personality, breeding results improve when they are housed with their own kind and are not disturbed. Cocks and hens are protective of their nests and need space for undisturbed breeding.

Aggressive behaviour is a sign of dominance and good health. Assertive behaviour may be seen from a young age and it is wise to select the most assertive youngsters (those at the top of the pecking order) when seeking to improve the overall health and reproductive capacity of Mutation or Normal flocks. It may be necessary to remove over-aggressive cocks or hens as some Gouldians fight to the death.

When breeding for colour Mutations, up to five established breeding pairs can be bred successfully together in a 3m x 2m x 2m box-type aviary. American enthusiasts use small cages to keep both normal and mutation Gouldians. These may only be 75 centimeters high by 75 centimeters long by 45cm deep. Successful breeding may occur in cages with dimensions as low as 60 centimeters by 50 centimeters by 50 centimeters. However, such cramped conditions introduce further difficulties when breeding Gouldians indoors and especially for Mutations because of fitness restraints and sunlight restrictions. Artificial ultra-violet lighting must be incorporated when Gouldians are housed indoors away from natural sunlight.

Open type aviaries are suitable and recommended for established and vital families of normal and mutation Gouldian finches in warm climates, however they are not suitable when a particular mutation family is weak. At the beginning of the breeding season when more than two virgin Mutation breeding pairs are housed together in a similar sized box-type aviary, surveillance becomes necessary to identify problem pairs that may fight excessively whilst competing for breeding sites and cause subsequent breeding failures.

Knowledge of the demeanour and personality of Gouldians can be used to recognise the first sign of ill health. The sudden onset of nervousness in an otherwise calm bird is a useful indication of an imminent health problem.

Normal versus Mutation Gouldians
Gouldians bred in captivity may be separated into two groups; Normals and Mutations.

The housing and care of each group varies according to its breeding capacity and ability to stay alive in captivity.

"Normals" are strong and prolific breeders whereas Mutations are often weak and unable to successfully rear their young. The ability of each group to breed varies from family to family. A common goal of all Gouldian breeders should be to strengthen the families they keep and produce birds that breed prolifically, rear their own young and remain fit and healthy under the conditions within which they live. Mutations often need additional and specialized conditions compared to Normals but nowadays there are several breeders who have developed mutations that breed in open aviaries.

The challenge of breeding coloured mutations is met by paying attention to their special feeding and housing requirements. Selection, as well as the selection of strong and vital individuals as breeders ensures the long-term viability of the family.

There are a number of different coloured mutations. Some mutations have been established for some years and with patience and wise breeding strategies have become hardy birds, good breeders and capable of rearing their own young. Several mutation varieties including White-breasted and Australian White-breasted Yellows fall into this category.

Some Mutations are as strong as Normals whilst others are obviously much weaker.

The late Mr.Ron Tristram notes some of the weaknesses he has observed in parent reared and aviary-bred Mutation Gouldians as follows:

"White-breasted and Green-back Gouldians have a weakness for air sac mite but are considered robust generally providing they are parent reared and aviary bred.
Yellow-back Gouldians in purple and white-breasted form are sex-linked birds. These are hardy Mutations that also possess genetic vigour and strong breeding characteristics but are susceptible to cold temperatures as "green" birds (juveniles).

Australian Yellows and Australian Dilutes are not a difficult bird to keep and propagate. They are more difficult to improve than the sex-linked Yellow Mutation because a split "out-crossing" must be used to produce colour, quality and type equal to the sex-linked Yellow-back Gouldians.

Blue-back Gouldians are difficult to keep and breed. Do not attempt to keep this bird until you have at least 5 years experience with White-breast and Yellow-back Gouldians.

Blue Mutations are susceptible to Thrush, Coccidiosis, Streptococcal, Campylobacter and Cochlosoma infections. Blue mutations have generally not been kept in a normal aviary environment. A large numbers of these are irreversibly imprinted and need to be fostered to other Gouldians as opposed to Bengalese if the imprinting issue is to be addressed and rectified."

Cage breeding is common place and successful for breeding Normal and Mutation Gouldians in America and Europe, whereas in Australia cage breeding is restricted to petbirds and mutations.

A cage system used for breeding Gouldians may, however, encourage the production of lazy, weak-boned birds. Where-ever possible, box-type aviaries that provide the birds with fresh air and direct sunlight should be used instead of an indoor cage system. However cage breeding may be more successful when establishing a mutation variety.

Some families of Blue Mutations appear to be much stronger in the USA than the ones we have in Australia. Here, artificial heating, cage breeding, foster parenting and medicinal aid is often the only way to establish weaker families of these popular Mutations. Mutations are commonly poor parents and foster parents are required to rear their young.

Normals require the least care and do best on the same health programmes recommended for finches housed in ornamental aviaries (see Part 6). They do best as single colonies and should not be allowed to breed during their spring moult. Mutations require more sophisticated care and programmes similar in Nature to those used for exhibition canaries (see Part 4).

Gouldians are highly adaptable birds that may be bred successfully under many different conditions. The natural breeding pattern of wild Gouldians should be followed for captive Gouldians housed in the Southern and Northern Hemispheres. Slight differences in the time of breeding and moult seasons will occur in relation to local climate conditions, geographical location and whether the birds are housed outdoors or indoors with artificial lighting.

Mutations are more likely to die in the nest, at fledgling, during adolescence, the moult and upon exposure to disease. However, wherever possible Mutations should be housed outdoors where they can receive the benefits of natural sunlight, fresh air and free flight.

It is the improved fitness levels and associated health levels provided by these conditions that produce a more naturally vital and potent family of Gouldian. It is difficult to achieve a strong family of Mutations without the benefits offered by open-type aviaries.

Mutation Gouldians
Mutation Gouldian finches generally require more precise care than Normals throughout their entire life cycle but especially before they start breeding.

The preparations for breeding are more straightforward for Normals housed together as a colony outdoors than Mutations kept under less spacious interior conditions.

Mutations do not receive the same health and fitness benefits of Normals housed in large open aired aviaries.

In a small enclosed environment, Mutations are prone to obesity and inactivity at the end of their moult that must be managed appropriately. John Sammut (ABK Guide to Keeping Gouldians 1995) has advised breeders about preventing obesity as follows:

"After the moult is completed in juvenile birds the cocks are placed in one aviary and hens in another away from each other and put on a seed only diet. It consists of 25% canary, 25% French white millet, 25% Japanese millet and 25% Hungarian millet. This protects them from becoming fat immediately prior to the breeding season. Vitamins, minerals and green food are supplied regularly, while cuttlefish and grit are on hand all the time. Highly nutritious foods, soft food, sprouted seeds, and seeding grasses are withheld during this time."

It is difficult to explain exactly the reasons why Mutations are more fragile than Normals, but in Nature the selection process is continual and an entrenched feature for maintaining the strength and future of all species, not only Gouldians.

Current understanding by behavioural scientists confirms that hen birds select those cocks that display the greatest vigour under the negative physiological circumstances of testosterone release. Fox (Australian Journal of Zoology 50(2).2002) recognised that males with an increased length of tail pinfeather and a larger bill size were physical features that attracted hens to cocks during the breeding season. This "good look" feature of Gouldians has been an evolutionary development in Nature with a prime objective of ensuring the best genes are made available to future generations. Even so, the progeny from the "strongest" pairs are not always vital and strong because genetic variation from one offspring to the next always occurs. The existence of variation is the origin of weaklings but also it is also necessary for the diversity needed for evolutionary change and the basis of future success for all species.

Problems of "Mutation" Gouldian
Problems associated with Mutations originate from their inherent weakness, because the chances of producing weak offspring are far greater than when breeding from strong individuals or pairs.

Mutations require much more care whilst they are being established but with careful planning strong families of Mutations can be developed. Nowadays many mutation families have become as strong as Normals and may be successfully housed and bred in outdoor aviaries.

Blue-series Mutations generally remain weak and require special care. Protection from fluctuating environmental conditions, addition of nutritional supplements, programmes for preventing disease and careful selection (See Alan Simpson’s Breeding Strategies) of each breeding pair help to produce a stronger Mutation offspring.

The chances of producing strong Blue offspring are improved when Blue Mutations are paired with hardy and healthy "Split Blues". (Split Blues are Normal coloured birds that have been produced by crossbreeding a Normal Gouldian with a Blue-coloured Mutation.)

A Blue X Split Blue pairing should produce both Blue-coloured and Normal-coloured but "Split Blue" offspring. It is common knowledge that the Blue coloured offspring will be weaker and more susceptible to illness than the Normal coloured progeny.

Polyomavirus infection is a possible reason for the increased susceptibility of Blue Mutation Gouldians to disease.

Polyomavirus & Mutation Problems
Polyomavirus is a disease of the breeding season that infects nestlings.

Adult birds cannot become infected with Polyomavirus, a disease that may permanently damage the immune system. Infected birds become incapable of repelling germs that are of little danger to healthy birds. The result is sickly individuals that are the first to fall ill when conditions are less than perfect. Infected young become "carriers" for life.

Mutation nestlings from a clutch holding Mutation and Split Mutations are always the first to become ill in the nest or after they fledge. This fact further supports a susceptibility of Mutations to the effects of Polyomavirus infections.

An increased susceptibility of Mutation (young and adult) Gouldians to diseases such as to Coccidiosis, Ornithosis, Candidiasis, Cochlosoma, Campylobacter and Streptococcal Infections may be the result of underlying Polyomavirus infection (or vice versa).

Polyomavirus, Ornithosis and Candidiasis were often involved with deaths of Yellow Mutations as they were being established in Australia (Marshall AAV Conference Proceedings 1990). Although Polyomavirus infections were lessened after the Ornithosis and Candidiasis were managed with drugs, the complete elimination of these diseases was only achieved by selective breeding.

Weakness in Blue Mutation Gouldians may similarly be the result of underlying Polyomavirus and Ornithosis infections. The prevalence of Streptococcal infection (rather than Candidiasis) points towards Polyomavirus as the primary cause of weakness in Blue Mutation families. This weakness is then perpetuated as Polyomavirus is passed onto offspring.

Above all, Polyomavirus must be controlled in order to establish strong Blue Mutation families. Treating for Ornithosis and maintaining good housing, care, hygiene and feeding may achieve this. Proven healthy and successful Normal Gouldians must then be cross-bred with Blue Mutations. The most robust Splits from this pairing should form the basis of a new Blue Mutation family. The chances of producing hardy Blues that are also free of Polyomavirus are marked improved by employing this health and breeding strategy.

The Importance of Breeding Condition
Normals or Mutations must follow the same breeding and moult cycles as the wild form if they are to breed successfully. The best time to set Gouldians for breeding is when they show the signs that they are in breeding condition.

Nest boxes should not be introduced and Mutation Gouldians must not be placed into breeding cages unless the birds are in "breeding condition".

Breeding should be allowed only after the birds have achieved "breeding condition". The appearance of new feathers on the back heralds the closure of the moult, and soon after, healthy Gouldians should exhibit the signs of "breeding condition" signaling that they are ready to breed. In ornamental aviaries breeding follows the same progression as seen in nature. Under the controlled conditions of box type aviaries and cage breeding, the fancier must take full control of the breeding process, ensuring that the birds are compatible and paired when they are in breeding conditionIt is the flush of energy-rich seeding grasses following summer rains that initiate wild Gouldians to breed.

The increased energy and protein availability at this time activates hormonal changes that bring Gouldian hens and cocks into 'breeding condition'. Breeding condition refers to the best physical condition for the Gouldian Finch to breed.

Sex hormones provide Gouldians with the strength and vitality needed for breeding. Without this hormonal preparation they will not be able to withstand the extremely high energy and nutritional demands of the breeding season. These huge energy requirements are essential for courtship, egg laying, incubation and rearing young and therefore it is important for breeding pairs to be in optimal physical condition when they start breeding.

Poor breeding occurs when Gouldians are not in breeding condition when nest boxes are introduced. For wild Gouldians, it is the availability of nutritious foodstuff that determines the time and duration they are in breeding condition. For the captive bird it is the environmental conditions and nutrition provided by the fancier that maintains breeding condition in breeding pairs.

The release of female sex hormones associated with the onset of the breeding season, prepares hens for the complexity of laying eggs. These hormones are responsible for the mobilisation of calcium from the body tissues to be deposited inside the long bones. The calcium stored in the long bones is essential for the production of hard-shelled eggs because dietary calcium alone cannot meet the massive requirements. Similarly body stores of protein are essential to create the yolk because dietary levels of protein are not sufficient even when in increased amounts. The body mobilises protein from the liver, muscle and other organs under the influence of sex hormones. The release of the sex hormones is incomplete when Gouldians are allowed to breed 'out of breeding condition'. The result is poor fertility, small clutch sizes, egg binding, and weak, sick breeding hens.

For Normals and melanistic-type Mutations the changing colour of the beak is a good sign of impending breeding condition and the ideal time to introduce breeding boxes. There is little colour change in the beaks of non-melanistic Mutation hens. Hens may carry nest material in their beaks and search for a nest.

Cock birds in breeding condition become virile and more aggressive due to high levels of circulating testosterone (male sex hormone). Protective and assertive behaviour towards other cocks, courtship activities of the cock bird around the nest and the presence of nesting material carried by the hen stimulate the full release of testosterone, which further improves fertility.

The observant fancier easily identifies the most vigorous and fit birds in the aviary and it is these birds that are the first to come into breeding condition. For the best breeding results, both the hen and cock need to be maintained in breeding condition. In the wild Gouldians may quickly 'fall out of breeding condition' when conditions are not favourable for breeding (i.e. when food or water supplies dry up).

Similarly, the aviary Gouldian 'falls out of breeding condition' very quickly when conditions for breeding are unfavourable. Gouldians may fail to come into "breeding condition" with resultant poor breeding results during prolonged dry or cold weather or when humidity levels or temperatures indoors are excessively low.

Aviary Gouldians weakened by disease; poor genes and incorrect nutrition are very sensitive to the hardships of breeding and more likely to 'fall out of breeding condition'. Rejection of eggs and young may be the result of a loss of "breeding condition" in Gouldians.

Captive Gouldians all around the world follow the same breeding cycle and should start to come into breeding condition mid-summer. Breeding should then be allowed to continue until mid-spring afater which time the pairs should be given a rest from breeding and be allowed to moult.

Australian breeder, Mick Reed of Yepoon in tropical Queensland, successfully breeds Normals in large semi-open aviaries.

" His birds start to moult in October and are completed by mid-December. He controls their breeding activities by introducing and removing their nest boxes at predetermined times of the year. He introduces the nest boxes on the first of January each year by which time his birds are well and truly in "breeding condition" having completed their moult by mid-December. He likes to give his birds a "rest" period and stops breeding activity in August by removing the nests as the young fledge. At this time the nests are cleaned, disinfected and treated with insecticides so that they are ready for the next breeding season."

In Darwin, tropical Australia, Gouldians come into breeding condition by January 1st (second month of summer). Milton Lewis who has been breeding Gouldians for 22 years stated 30 January 2001:

"The wild Gouldians will start to breed in a week or so. I have no trouble following the seasons with my birds and they are always more than ready to breed after a month."

Kenneth S. Karsten writes

"Other breeders of Gouldian Finches in my area of Florida USA have told me that their birds also start breeding in October (second month of autumn) and stop sometime in May (second month of autumn)" In London, Gouldians have also been reported to come into breeding condition October 1st.

Breeding Systems: Cage, Box-Type Aviary
Captive Gouldians at times behave differently from those in the wild. Although in the wild Gouldians do not make nests breeding activity is heightened in captivity when nesting material and nest boxes are provide. Gouldians revert to an ancestoral breeding behaviour where nest making stimulates "full" breeding condition and improves fertility. There are a few options for aviaries in which to breed Gouldians. The choice of aviary depends upon the type of Gouldian you wish to keep and breed.

Cage Breeding
Cage Breeding is more popular in Europe and USA than Australia for breeding Normals and Mutations. In Australia, specialist breeders for establishing new or weak mutations mostly use this system. Specialists prefer cage breeding as a means to improve the quality or "type" of Gouldian they wish to breed. Canary breeders who keep Gouldians use their canary breeding units with good breeding results. Cages, no matter how large should not be expected to produce as strong offspring as open flighted sunlit aviaries. Some aviculturists prefer half-open aviaries to breed established mutations although this type of aviary may not give the same level of control over breeding outcomes as cage or box type breeding. Nevertheless good quality birds may still be produced as long as the breeding stock has been selected wisely.

More breeding difficulties must be anticipated when Gouldians are bred in cages denied of fresh air, direct sunlight and free flight. Cage breeding, however, does benefit captive Gouldians that are kept in cold climates. Normal Gouldians are especially adaptable and when cared for properly do in fact breed very well in cages that have no access to direct sunlight or fresh air. Artificial heating and UV lighting do provide the environmental conditions needed for hardy families of Gouldians to breed successfully.

Coloured Mutations require more intensive breeding systems because parents are weaker than Normals, although many established colour Mutations are now strong and rear their own young. There are several options for breeding these more difficult varieties but ultimately a natural system should be used where possible for the long term health and benefit of these more fragile birds.

Cage breeding is popular in overseas countries. Often cage breeding is used to establish new Mutations. After the colour Mutation has been established, a more natural system should be adopted for the long-term viability of the strain.

A natural system can also be adopted for Mutations that are bred as individual pairs in cages in order to guarantee their genetic heritage for future breeding. Once established, an effort must be made to encourage these more fragile coloured birds to rear Gouldian young, although not necessarily their own progeny. There is no point to, or an easy future, for a coloured mutation that is unable to rear young.

Box-Type Aviary
A box type cage with a wire front at least 450mm deep, 900mm long and 600mm high is enough room for a pair of birds. Two perches should be placed as far apart from each other as possible, but not too close to the ends of the cage to damage to the cock's tail. Perches should be 10mm thick and rough, not smooth. The wire front must have all the openings to accommodate a nestbox, seed and water containers, soft food container, a mineral powder/grit container and a clip to hold the cuttlefish bone.

Box type aviaries are the preferred type of aviary in which to breed established and new mutations, because it provides Gouldians with acccess to free flight, fresh air and direct sunlight as well as providing protection from cold temperatures and high humidity. The combination of an open flight, heated nest boxes and two pairs per aviary offers an excellent system for breeding Mutation Gouldians. This more natural system promotes the health and fitness found with colony breeding combined with the control offered by the cage breeding system. Breeding may continue throughout winter in cold locations and the birds can be separated in spring to complete their moult in readiness for summer breeding.

John Sammut, expert Gouldian breeder in Sydney Australia, has designed the perfect box-type aviary (see ABK’s Guide to Gouldians 2nd Edition) that incorporates heated nesting areas. Other box-type designs that do not utilize artificial heating may be equally successful when breeding is not allowed to continue into winter.

Under Australian conditions a north or north-east facing aviary provides the best breeding opportunity for Gouldians because the sun rises from a more northerly direction during the summer breeding months. An open elevated flight captures the direct morning sunlight and quickly warms the heat loving Gouldians into activity. A covered breeding; roosting; feeding area is also necessary so that the birds can escape the effects of inclement weather.

Aviaries that are 3 metres long, 2 metres wide and 2.1 metres high are ideal for holding up to 5 breeding pairs, 10 non-breeding adults or 20 juvenile birds. Banks of these sized aviaries may be placed adjacent to each other to simulate colony breeding enjoyed by Gouldians in Nature. Perches should be positioned under cover during cold winter months because Gouldians prefer to perch in the open where they become vulnerable to the effects of cold temperatures and draughts.

Colony breeding may also be practiced with box-type aviaries using 2-5 pairs as a colony. Nestling deaths should be expected during cold winters when breeding is allowed to continue in box-type aviaries that are not equipped with artificial heating. Under such circumstances, deaths from cold exposure can be avoided by removing the nests with their nestlings into a warm room at night and replacing them early the next morning.

Open or Half-Open Type Aviaries
Open type aviaries are the best type of aviary in which to breed Normal Gouldians. Strong families and established Mutations may also breed well here. Open type aviaries are good for warm climates. The large flight is partially enclosed and there is a covered section in which nest boxes are placed.

Open type aviaries must be carefully designed to eliminate the effects of draughts and predators. Half-flight, half-shed type aviaries produce better results in temperate climates because of Gouldians’ natural propensity for heat and sunlight combined with a need for protection from frosty cold temperatures at night. This type of aviary allows the birds to be locked away at night. Gouldians need to be locked in at times because they have a habit of camping out in the flight area during the night or when it rains and seem reluctant to use any shelter provided. Although Gouldians are able to tolerate very cold weather they do not enjoy sudden fluctuations in temperature, humidity or cold winds, especially when they are breeding or during a moult. A facility that allows them to be locked away is extremely beneficial to their long-term health and breeding performance. Fluctuations in temperature and humidity are less likely in the warmer states (Queensland and Western Australia) and difficulties are more likely to be experienced in colder inland regions and along the humid Australian seaboard.

Ornamental Aviaries
Ornamental aviaries are built to enhance the appearance of a garden and may be used to breed Normals but not Mutations. They must be well planted with windbreaks and have a large enclosed area in which Gouldians can seek protection from the weather and other birds. Mutations are not strong enough to withstand the unhygienic conditions, high moisture and interruption from other finch species in this type of aviary. Controlled breeding of Mutations is also impossible in ornamental aviaries.

It is more difficult to control the breeding and moult cycles when Gouldians are bred with other birds. As well surveillance of nests is more difficult and many Gouldian chicks may perish overnight during cold winter nights. Nestling deaths are common because Gouldians stop brooding when their young reach ten days of age. To avoid such deaths breeding during cold winters (southern states of Australia or overseas) should be stopped by removing the nest boxes from ornamental aviaries between June and July (the coldest months of winter).

Aviary Hardware
Nest Boxes
Ply boxes are 130mm cube with an opening approximately one third of the box's height and a small landing perch 25mm below the opening.

Food and Water Containers
Water tubes or fonts are preferred to open dishes that are easily fouled by droppings. In ornamental aviaries open food dishes and water containers should be positioned on elevated shelves.

Soft Food Container
Budgerigar showcage drinkers are ideal containers for Gouldians because they hold enough soft food for parents and babies.

Cuttlefish Bone, Seeding Grass & Green food clips
The clips are used to hold a piece of cuttlefish bone on to the inside of the cage front.

Grit Container
Grit is provided in a D-shaped cup and is hooked on to the inside of the cage front.

Artificial Lighting and Heating
The breeding season of Gouldians in its natural tropical habitat may extend into winter where the temperatures remain mild and hours of daylight are longer than in the southern states of Australia. Gouldians kept in open air aviaries (box-type, half open type and ornamental aviaries) also breed throughout winter because of their continuing food supply but cold temperatures and short days may diminish their breeding activity substantially.

Artificial lighting is used by most European and American breeders and some specialist Australian breeders. Artificial lighting is used to extend daylight hours for breeding pairs housed indoors. This is also referred to as increasing the photo-period. The photo-period is the ratio of light to dark time. A 15:9 ration means 15 hours of light and 9 hours of darkness. The photoperiod is very important in those species of birds living in zones with seasonal changes. For temperate-zone birds housed indoors, ovarian development and testicular growth are synchronised by a combination of increasing day length and the stimuli provided by a partner and an available nesting site. This technique is widespread amongst canary breeders but its only benefit for the tropical-zone Gouldians housed indoors is to give parents more time to feed. It has no effect on the breeding cycle of Gouldians. If the length of the daylight is too long or fluctuates, the birds may go into an early moult and may cease breeding.

Temperature & Humidity Control
Most fanciers who breed Gouldians indoors maintain an inside temperature of approximately 18ºC. at the start of the breeding season. This may be a conservative decision because Gouldians enjoy much warmer conditions. In Nature, July (their coldest month) minimum temperatures across the breeding habitat of Gouldians range from 12-18ºC. During January (start of their breeding season) maximum temperatures fall within a 30-36ºC range. A 30-36ºC temperature range appears to be the ideal temperature for Gouldians. Mutations requiring artificial heat should benefit when temperatures are held between 30-36ºC.

The humidity inside should be kept within the range of 55% to 70%. Maintaining the humidity at the lower end of this range minimizes the development of pathogens within the breeding room but it is also very important to have sufficient humidity at the time of hatching. Artificial heating does improve breeding activity of Gouldians but they must also receive plenty of sunlight or additional ultraviolet light.

Artificial lighting and heating used by Mutation enthusiasts for breeding indoors and in box type aviary can improve breeding likelihood and the survival chances of newly hatched birds in cold winters. Up to fifteen hours of daylight should be provided for Gouldian because breeding Gouldians may not receive enough rest with longer periods of time. Automatic timers are used to switch the light on at 5am and off at 6pm. A second source of low intensity light, the night-light, should come on fifteen minutes before the daylight then switches itself off. Its dimming effect prevents plunging the birds into sudden darkness at night or daylight in the morning.

We know Gouldians enjoy hot temperatures. Across their natural range range they have adapted to minumum temperatures between 12-18ºC. Below 12ºC. they start to feel cold and unhappy. Mutations are less able to tolerate low temperatures but under Australian conditions healthy Normals adapt and remain well during very low and even freezing temperatures. Mutations must be kept at temperatures above 18ºC degrees for continued breeding. They are unable to maintain their body heat and lose body condition when temperatures drop below 12ºC for a prolonged length of time. Thermostatically controlled heaters set at 30ºC should provide the best conditions for rearing Mutation Gouldians.

Running Eggs and Foster Parents
Gouldians become poor parents when they are diseased or weakened from poor housing, feeding, hygiene or genes. Strong families of Goudlians make exceptional parents capable of rearing a clutch of 9 young. Mutations are often poor parents and often foster parents are required to rear their young and establsih a family.

Gouldians are well suited to "running eggs" under foster parents because they do not start to brood until the last egg has been laid. The eggs can be "set" aside and replaced with dummy eggs until the last is laid. These eggs may then be placed under a suitable foster pair of good parenting background, either Bengalese or Normal Gouldians.

Proven families of Bengalese (Society finches) have been popular in the past as foster parents and were also used to control airscac mite infestations in Gouldians. Bengalese, however, may carry diseases (Campylobacter, Cochlosoma and Candidiasis) that kill nestling and juvenile Gouldians. Medicines have been required to control these diseases in young mutations reared by foster parents. These medicines have further hampered the development of these weak families.

Nowadays, the use of Bengalese as foster parents should be reserved for Mutations that are poor parents or to establish a new coloured mutation. The problems associated with imprinting and spread of illness (Ivermectin is available for treating airsac mites) does not warrant the use of Bengalese as foster parents. Ideally, Normals should be used as foster parents to establish new Mutations as well because it will lessen the need to use medicines.

Families of Normal Gouldians with good parenting background are the best choice for rearing Mutation Gouldians. This is a far more satisfactory system. The eggs are simply exchanged between Normals and Mutation pairs. The weaker Mutation parents are given stronger Normal chicks to rear. This enhances parenting skills and improves the likelihood of the pair successfully rearing the clutch. The stronger, Normal pairs with proven parenting skills provide the weaker coloured Mutation babies with the best possible conditions to develop into strong and robust Gouldians, offering them a better opportunity to breed successfully as adults. Over time, this system promotes a stronger family of Normals and coloured birds capable of breeding naturally. Overseas Gouldian breeders have a greater need for foster parents because they are unable to provide their birds with natural light and space for exercise.

Feeding Behaviour of Gouldians
All the Australian estrildines (finches) feed on the seeds of grasses but each species varies in its dependency upon them, such as the Zebra Finch who relies exclusively on the seeds from grasses for survival and breeding. They eat grass seeds and rarely anything else. Over sixty species of seeds have been identified in the diet of Zebra finches and the protein balance from these seeds provides the nutrition required for breeding. Zebras also rely heavily on half ripe seeds during the breeding season. These provide additional energy, vitamins and minerals for the feeding parents. They have little need for live food. Other estrildines, such as the Blue-faced Parrot finch, (Erythrura tichroa) require a large variety of seeds from protein rich plants in addition to live food when breeding.

The feeding requirements of Gouldian are closely aligned to the Zebra finch. Seeding grasses appear to provide Gouldians with the protein balance required for breeding. There appears to be little additional benefit gained from live food, although there are many reports of Gouldians "hawking" (catching) flying termites and other insects when breeding in the wild. Australian enthusiasts support a view that the addition of live and "egg" food does not improve the breeding performance of healthy and strong families of Gouldians. However, weak families, especially the blue varieties are significantly advantaged when nutritionally rich soft foods are added to their diet during breeding and moult seasons.

Above all the food equation must be balanced. Gouldians will benefit from more protein and nutritional supplements in their food when they are Mutations, during the moult, breeding or when fresh foods are not provided. The need of captive Gouldians for nutritional supplementation decreases proportionately to the amount of sunlight, fresh air and fresh foods (seeding grasses, greens, minerals, eggs and vegetables) they receive as well as their fitness and natural health (genes).

As an example, Mick Reed of Yepoon gives his Normal mutations time to rest (stops breeding in August), moult (mid-September to mid-December) and provides an array of fresh food. He houses his birds in a half- open aviary, lives in a warm environment and needs only to supplement with F-vite and keep the water clean with KD & Megamix to get extraordinary breeding results. He gains no extra benefit from additional supplements. Mr Domaraki of Condobolin offers similar care, housing his Mutations in box-type aviaries. His birds require additional energy (E-powder), minerals (F-vite) and vitamins (Dufoplus and Ioford) to breed well because his birds are Mutations and must also endure fluctuating temperatures & humidity.

Critical Times for Gouldian Health
The increased incidence of disease at certain times may be explained by a disturbance of the natural cycles of Gouldians and the existence of overlapping stresses. Problems are more likely to occur during critical physiological stages of young and adult birds. Gouldians remain most vulnerable to health problems at the following times.

Critical Times for Nestlings
0-3 days
Hatching requires a substantial effort. Weak nestlings succumb mostly to Yellow Belly Disease.

2 weeks
The health of young Gouldians at pin feathers age are particularly compromised during cold weather because their parents stop brooding. 4 weeks

Gouldians fledge between 24-26 days of age. At this time they leave the safety and warmth of the nest.

This represents a significant psychological disturbance to weaker young.

Critical Times for Juveniles
6-12 weeks At six weeks of age the luminous gape spots disappear from the angle of beak when young birds wean becoming self-sufficient. Their parents are also beginning to prepare for their next brood at this time. The combination of independence, parent aggression and the start of the juvenile moult exposes weak birds to illness.

The period of six weeks after weaning is a most problematic age for young Gouldians particularly when it is cold.

Critical times for Mature Gouldians
Fully Coloured Hens
Hens are at most risk during the exertion of producing and laying their eggs.

Fully Coloured Cocks
Cocks are at most risk soon after courtship beginsbecause of the harmful effect male sex hormones have on their immune system.

Parent Hens and Cocks
When feeding young

Susceptibility to Cold & Wet Conditions
Temperatures are warm to hot in the natural tropical range of Gouldians where unlike other Australian finches, they thrive during the extreme summer heat. Other Australian finches wilt as the temperatures rise above 35 degrees Celsius but Gouldians are best at these high temperatures and enjoy bathing in the direct sunshine much more than other finches. Flighted aviaries that capture the morning sun help with health problems and sustain breeding activity into the cooler months of the year.

Gouldians are most active and look their best when basking in direct sunshine and when it is hot.

Keep this in mind when breeding Gouldians in an aviary or enclosed room.

Provisions should also be made for additional shelves and perches to be placed in the open flight area during hot weather for water baths and sunbaking.

Gouldians look dejected and fluff up during wet overcast weather. They breed best in aviaries away from the humidity of the coast preferring countryside weather conditions of clear skies and hot temperatures that resemble the climate of their natural breeding habitat. The migratory behaviour of the wild Gouldian supports this view. They move northward from their breeding habitat towards the coast during dry winter months when their food supplies have become depleted and return inland in summer after the arrival of the monsoon wet season brings prolonged cloud cover and frequent rains. The northern extremity of their range rarely supports breeding activity. Breeding activity is awakened by extended rains that provide grass-seeds and insects in numbers to support the rearing young. The low humidity (dry air), high temperatures and clear skies of the savanna woodlands away from the coastal humidity and rainfall provide these conditions. Breeding problems for captive Gouldians should be expected when similar cloudy, wet conditions prevail. Ornamental aviaries with water displays do not offer the dry environment enjoyed by Gouldians and they may not breed well under these conditions.

Fluctuations of temperature, high humidity and draughts are the main enemy of breeding and juvenile Gouldians. The wild Gouldian is protected from these conditions under the cover of its wooded breeding habitat. Gouldians can withstand freezing temperatures in open aviaries as long as they are healthy and protected from draught, the night-time condensation of moist air and sudden fluctuations of temperature and humidity. Gouldians rarely breed well and chick mortality is high in cold climates. Breeding failures during cold spells are inevitable because Gouldians are naturally poor brooders often leaving their nest in the wild for extended periods especially when temperatures raise above 36 degrees Celsius. Here high daytime temperatures and mild evenings protect their eggs and young. Their innately poor brooding skills expose their clutches of eggs and young to failure during cold weather.

Unlike other Australian finches, juvenile Gouldians (as well as Painted and Pictorella finches) roost alone with no physical contact. They are therefore more susceptible to the effects of cold and fluctuating temperatures during a time when there is a considerable natural demand for energy resources in weaning, fledging and the juvenile moult. All birds are highly adaptable creatures and the Gouldian is no exception. Breeding success in the wild is best when the conditions are perfect but good breeding conditions are the exception rather than the rule in the drought ridden Northern Australia. In good seasons, however, the habitat of the breeding Gouldians provides an endless variety of nutritional opportunities. Similarly there are many different and equally successful ways to feed captive Gouldians.

Nestling Susceptibility to Cold/ Wet Conditions.
Nestling Gouldians are most susceptible to the effects of cold and wet weather conditions at: Pin feather age: 2 weeks old.

Gouldian parents no longer brood their young from 12 days of age. Nestlings of this age cannot generate enough heat to survive the cold on their own. They huddle together to decrease their surface area and keep each other warm. However, it is impossible to maintain their body heat when temperatures drop too low.

Juvenile Susceptibility to Cold and Wet Conditions.
Fledging age: 3 weeks old.
The young leave the nest at three weeks of age rarely returning to the protection of the nest. They are exposed to the effects of cold at this time because they no longer huddle to keep warm.

Weaning age: 3 - 6 weeks old
After leaving the nest Gouldians are still fed by their parents until about six weeks of age when they becomeindependent. The luminous gape spots disappear from the angle of beak when the birds become independent.

Juvenile moult starts: Springtime
This is an age where adverse weather conditions have a marked affect on the health of Gouldians, because such large amounts of energy resources are needed to complete the juvenile moult.

Breeding Birds Susceptibility to the Cold.
Cocks: Cock Gouldians are most susceptible to the effects of bad weather as they begin their courtship displays. At this time the androgen (male sex) hormones weaken the immune system and render the cock bird more susceptibleto illness. Weaker cock birds are less able to generate their own heat and fluff their plumage out in an effort insulate their body from the cold. Prolonged effort at conserving their own body heat during cold spells weakens them further, they eat less and within two days they are too weak to eat and die.

Hens: Hens become most susceptible after she has selected her nest and mated with her cock. She must expend enormous amounts of energy producing eggs. The hot temperatures of her natural environment preserve her energy levels, whereas in an open aviary, cold, fluctuating and wet weather drains these energy reserves causing egg binding and breeding hen diseases.

Perches should be placed within the covered area to prevent the breeding birds and their young sleeping in the rain or outside on cold nights. The nest boxes should be positioned within the covered area during the breeding season and removed for the moult at the conclusion of breeding. Artificial heating may be necessary during cold spells and, with weak families of Gouldians, to prevent illness and deaths. The covered area is vital for food hygiene and protects the birds from bad weather, cold spells and draughts.

Disease Susceptibility
In the wild, Gouldians are more able to take advantage of less than perfect conditions to breed because they are inherently stronger and more adaptable than captive birds. The further captive Gouldians move away from nature the less adaptable and more fastidious they become. Coloured Mutations require exemplary care to overcome their inherent weaknesses. Gouldians kept in open but dry half-open and ornamental aviaries are much stronger having adapted to conditions closer to Nature.

Different levels of care are required for each "type" of Gouldian with Mutations requiring the most care. Additional nutrients and care are required to help these fragile coloured birds to breed. Far less care is required for Normal Gouldians housed in open planted dirt floored aviaries. These strong Gouldians often breed throughout the entire year on a meagre seed and green diet. Coloured Mutations are weaker and unable to adapt or tolerate such an unfriendly environment. They must receive nutritional additives and be provided with a more controlled environment.

Coloured Mutations are more susceptible to cold stress than Normals because they are often inherently weak. By careful observation weak birds can be identified.

Virgin breeding pairs are more susceptible to problems than established breeding pairs, because they are first time breeders. Cock birds are especially prone to illness at the beginning of the breeding cycle. It is a combination of their androgen (male sex) hormones that are released into the blood stream and the highly energetic nature of courtship behaviour. Androgens are known to weaken the immune system. First time breeders and weak cocks are most susceptible to disease especially Streptococcus at this time.

Virgin hens must also endure energy sapping physical activities of egg production and laying. It is during this stage of their breeding cycle, when the environmental and nutritional requirements are not met, that disease is more prevalent. The problems encountered in virgin pairs are lessened considerably when a nutritional health programme is introduced when they are juveniles and especially during the moult a long time prior to the breeding season and a stringent selection and culling policy is adopted. Special notice is taken of those birds first to complete the juvenile moult, as these are the strongest and should be the first chosen for breeding.

Identifying Weak Individuals
Cock Birds: Cocks that fluff up and become lifeless soon after breeding when conditions are not particularly hot should be regarded as weaklings until proven otherwise. Young cocks more often "drop out" of breeding condition and should be held back from breeding until they have completed their next moult. They must be culled from breeding if they "fail" in subsequent breeding seasons.

Hen Birds: Hens should breed successfully after the completion of the first annual moult. Such hens are judged strong hens because they do not experience androgenic immuno-suppression. Weak hens should not be used for future breeding.

Virgin hens that fall ill during egg production must be considered weaklings and are best removed from the breeding programme. Virgin cocks, however, should be given a second chance, as most will perform satisfactorily when held back for the next breeding season. Established breeding pairs rarely encounter contagious illnesses, because their health status and breeding prowess has already been tested or proven during adolescence and as virgin breeders. The majority of problems appear in weaker or older individuals that are unable to cope with the effort required to breed. As part of the continuing selection process culling is the best option for weak birds. Enthusiasts, however, must also be able to recognise the different personalities of members within their flock so as to prevent the unnecessary removal of robust productive birds that may fall ill because of poor care and aviary conditions.

Golden Rules for Breeding

Strong Natural Resistance.
Good Fertility & Fecundity
Food and Water Hygiene,
Dry Aviary
Good Management & Gouldian Happiness
Regular Worming, Lice & Mite control

Fertility is paramount to future breeding success. The selection of pairs is the single most important ingredient for determining offspring quality and establishing a family of healthy Gouldians. Fertility is known to be a hereditary characteristic passed down the cock line. Mr. Ron Tristram uses an "Alfa male/female System" that employs the same selection processes found in Nature to improve fertility and production. He places three or four pairs of young birds from a strong genetic and fertility background into flights measuring approximately 1metre wide by 3.5 metre long by 3 metre high to select their own partners.

Mr.Tristram believes pair bonding (i.e. allowing the birds to select their own mates) creates better breeding results and states "Extreme vigilance during this process is necessary as fighting for partners may lead to death. The fact that these birds determine their own mate and nesting sites results in them becoming prolific producers of high quality stock. I like and encourage Alfa birds, as this is the law of the wild. Both hens and cocks can become aggressive. This aggression is a sign of virility but great care must be taken to avoid deaths during the pairing process. Overly aggressive pairs should be immediately moved to single pair housing where they are able to concentrate on their breeding activities." Here the most virile birds may be seen to fight through adjoining flights (see photo on page 26). Continuing good health and breeding relies upon starting with known proven stock and culling any weak breeders.

Once a proven and healthy family of Goudians has been acquired, further improvements should be continuously explored. Not every bird bred, even from a very good producing family will become a good breeder. Improvements to breeding ability are achieved by continually assessing the breeding results of every pair and the vitality of their young. Good record keeping will help identify the level of production of each pair and is therefore the starting point and key to creating a lasting and strong family of Goudlians. Rings should be used to record the age and breeding background of each bird. They are available in an assortment of colours enabling the birds to be easily identified without being caught. Plastic or aluminium rings are available.

The number of young produced by each pair of Gouldians over a breeding season is known as fecundity. Although fecundity is the best measure of the genetic breeding performance of a pair (this quality being passed on to offspring), there are other more immediate signs that can be used to select the best quality breeders. Assertive cocks, juveniles which moult rapidly and individual birds that remain in good physical condition (active, tight feathered and with an upright stance) under adverse weather conditions are important signs of virility and these should be the first birds chosen as breeders.

The process for improving the strength of the Gouldian family is a continual one and relies principally upon the selection of the best breeding pairs to replace lesser breeders. As stated previously, a healthy family with a strong genetic background of breeding success is required before improvements to a family can be made. Although breeding ability is a strong heritable character passed down from generation to generation, there still remains a high degree of variation in the breeding ability of the offspring. For this reason, selection is a process that must be continually tested for every pair on an individual nest basis.

Mr. Ron Tristram adds

"It is extremely important when developing a strain or type of Gouldian Finch that you are aware of each variety’s strengths and weaknesses. Weaknesses must be strengthened by way of biodiversity (i.e. introducing new strong bloodlines)."